A neuron has three main parts: dendrites, an axon, and a cell body. Nerve cells communicate by transmission of energy (action potential) from the axon of one neuron to dendrites of receiving neurons. Neurons are the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the external world and for sending commands to our muscles and organs.

Nerve cells (neurons) communicate through the release of stored molecules of neurotransmitters from the transmitting (releasing) end of one nerve cell, through the synapse between them (space called synaptic cleft), to the receiving end (receptors) of a nearby target neuron. Neurotransmitter actions on the cell membranes typically cause an action or electrical potential. Neurotransmitters are usually classified as being either stimulating or inhibiting. Stimulating neurotransmitters include acetylcholine and dopamine. Inhibiting neurotransmitters include GABA and serotonin.

A cholinergic neuron is a nerve cell which mainly uses acetylcholine to send its messages. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that motor neurons of the nervous system release in order to activate muscles. In the brain, acetylcholine functions both as a neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator. The brain contains a number of cholinergic areas, with distinct functions, including roles in arousal, attention, memory, and motivation.

In summary, acetylcholine plays a role in attention and arousal, and also works to activate muscles. It allows you to learn and remember, and to regulate your attention and mood. Acetylcholine increases brain speed.

Dopamine is used as precursor in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters, norepinephrine and epinephrine. Norepinephrine mobilizes the brain and body for action. Epinephrine plays a role in the fight-or-flight response, increasing blood flow to muscles, output of the heart, pupil dilation response, and blood sugar level. In the brain, dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter to send signals to other nerve cells. The brain has several distinct dopamine pathways, one of which plays a major role in the motivational component of reward-motivated behavior. The anticipation of most types of rewards increases the level of dopamine in the brain, and many addictive drugs increase dopamine release or block its reuptake into neurons following release. Nerve cells that produce dopamine facilitate the formation of declarative memories, a term for memories that can be consciously recalled. These memories can stay for a long time and are considered long-term memories.

In summary, dopamine positively affects attention, behavior and cognition, learning, memory, mood, movement, and pleasurable reward. It can also reduce carbohydrate cravings. Dopamine increases brain voltage.

Some neurotransmitter enhancers provide the backbone, such as Citicoline (acetylcholine) and L-Tyrosine (dopamine). Some enhancers may complete the neurotransmitter, such as Acetyl-L-Carnitine (acetylcholine). And some may slow the breakdown of a neurotransmitter, such as Huperzine A (acetylcholine). Finally, some vitamins (B-vitamins and vitamin C) may assist in the formation of these compounds.

Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALC) is a derivative of the amino acid, L-Carnitine. L-Carnitine is made in the brain, liver, and kidneys. The main function of L-Carnitine is its role in beta-oxidation, a process that allows the body to turn fat into energy. Regarding acetylcholine, ALC donates acetyl groups to help form acetylcholine. It also seems to promote acetylcholine release. ALC stimulates membrane phospholipid synthesis, which leads to stabilization of cell membranes. This suggests it may act as a neuromodulatory agent. ALC also plays a role in the production of nerve growth factor. Brain Benefits: Age-Related Cognitive Impairment; Age-Related Fatigue; Alzheimer’s Disease; Chronic Cerebral Ischemia; Cognitive Impairment; Depression.

Citicoline (cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine) is an intermediate in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine from choline. (Citicoline is also called CDP-Choline.) It was originally studied in Japan for acute cerebrovascular events, and later introduced in Europe as a prescription drug for cognitive impairment related to chronic cerebrovascular disease. Citicoline activates the biosynthesis of structural phospholipids in neuronal membranes, improving brain metabolism and neuronal repair. Citicoline treatment increases dendritic length and branch points, increasing the surface area occupied by neurons, and increasing efficiency of sensory information processing. Citicoline also provides precursors for synthesis of neurotransmitters in the brain, including acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Brain Benefits: Age-Related Cognitive Decline.

Huperzine A is an alkaloid isolated from the Chinese club moss, Huperzia serrata, a member of the Lycopodium family. Huperzine A was first purified and formulated for medicinal use by scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Huperzine A may be beneficial in dementia, memory impairment, and myasthenia gravis, due to its effects on acetylcholine levels. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine. Huperzine A is a reversible inhibitor of AChE for up to three hours, and crosses the blood-brain barrier. It might be more specific for AChE, and have a longer duration of action, than AChE inhibitors such as tacrine (Cognex) or donepezil (Aricept), which are marketed as prescription drugs for Alzheimer's disease. In animal studies, Huperzine A was found to be 64 times more potent than tacrine. Huperzine A might also have other effects. It seems to prevent death of some cells, and may prevent changes in cells by acting as an antioxidant. Brain Benefits: Dementia; Memory.

Tyrosine is a nonessential amino acid synthesized in the body from the essential amino acid, phenylalanine. In the diet, it is found in beans, nuts, seeds, dairy, meats, fish, eggs, and some grains. Tyrosine may play a role in depression. Tyrosine is a precursor for the synthesis of the catecholamines (norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine). Low levels of norepinephrine play a role in depression, and dopamine plays a role in the function of some antidepressant agents. In healthy humans, an acute intake of tyrosine increases plasma levels of norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine. There is interest in tyrosine for preventing the negative effects related to stress. The brain may not be able to synthesize enough tyrosine from phenylalanine under stressful conditions, so catecholamines that are synthesized from tyrosine can become depleted during stress. Increasing the availability of tyrosine to the brain allows increased catecholamine synthesis and avoidance of the negative effects of stress. Under conditions of intense exercise and psychological stress, supplemental tyrosine may improve performance, memory, and learning. Brain Benefits: Cognitive Performance; Memory; Sleep Deprivation.

Compounds, such as certain drugs and nutrients, are absorbed from the GI tract and may pass via the portal vein into the liver, where some are metabolized. Sometimes the result of First Pass Metabolism (aka First Pass Effect) means that only a small portion of the drug reaches the circulation, thus requiring larger amounts to be effective. First Pass Metabolism can occur in the gut (intestinal mucosa) and the liver.

Drugs, and some nutrients, are absorbed by the highly vascularized oral mucosa in both methods, thereby directly entering systemic circulation. In sublingual administration, the drug is put under the tongue, where it dissolves in salivary secretions. Nitroglycerine is administered in this way. In buccal administration, the drug is placed between the teeth (gums) and the mucous membrane of the cheek. Sublingual and buccal methods both avoid destruction by the GI fluids and first pass effect of the liver. To remember, think: Head to Heart to Body.

(1) Rapid Absorption: The blood supply in the oral cavity allows for rapid absorption.

(2) First Pass Metabolism: The liver is bypassed, increasing bioavailability.

(3) Rapid Dispersal and Effect: Nutrients absorbed in the oral cavity are quickly returned to the heart, where they are then dispersed throughout the body.

Vitamin companies haven’t taken advantage of oral absorption, other than with a few products, such as vitamin B12 and melatonin lozenges. Brain Wafers are the first to have the benefits of oral absorption for a memory/energy product. The primary advantage of an oral lozenge is greater duration of the ingredients in the mouth, allowing for added absorption and reduction of First Pass Metabolism.